Alexander the Great of Macedon (356BC – 323 BC) is widely regarded to be one of the greatest kings and military commanders, and his 11-year campaign sent shockwaves down the ancient world which can still be felt today. This research paper argues that his military campaign was the most significant historical development within the ancient world. We first give an overview of his campaign showing the successes he achieved as the King of Macedonia followed by describing the effects of his actions.
1) Alexander’s military campaign
He was a brilliant strategist whose vast knowledge and intuition allowed him to achieve the tactical advantage even when faced with overwhelming odds. The Battle of Gaugamela is arguably the most prominent of Alexander’s battle, and marks a turning point in his campaign against the Persians, Not only was the battle fought on the terrain of the Persian’s choosing, but Darius commanded vastly superior numbers and were equipped with scythe-chariots and elephants (Kinzl, 568). Alexander adapted against this by organising his troops as a defensive response against the Persians, exploiting the weaknesses within their ranks and landing a crushing blow upon Darius’ army (Arrian, 3.7-3.16).
Outside the battlefield, Alexander also understood the power of propaganda and
winning the hearts of his subjects, including the people he subjugated. He sent the newly-
weds back to Macedonia to garner support for his military campaign and return with
reinforcements, boosting the birth rate of his country within the process (Kinzl, 570).
Alexander was also shown to be merciful from the treatment of his enemies, as seen by the way he treated Darius’ mother, wife and two daughters (The Parallel Lives, 285 ).
For these reasons, Alexander’s popularity during and immediately after his campaign swelled to incredible heights. Through the many successes he had enjoyed in his life, his legendary status was established across the ancient world; a domino effect influencing the many empires and societies which followed his reign.
2) Effects of Alexander’s Campaign
After Alexander’s sudden death in 323 BC, his territory was fought over and formed into four blocks of power: the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, the Seleucid Empire in the east, the Kingdom of Pergamon in Asian Minor and Macedon. For roughly 300 years these Hellenistic kingdoms were dominant forces, ensuring the propagation of Macedonian and Greek culture, and creating cross-cultural relationships with various societies.
2i) Alexandria
While on his military campaign, Alexander was known to have found several cities many of which continue to exist till the modern era. Perhaps the most famous and successful, is Alexandria, the final resting ground of Alexander the Great’s body and a cultural capital of the Hellenistic world.
Upon capturing the Egyptian satrapy from the Persians, Alexander set forth building a Greek city that would bear his name (The Life of Alexander the Great, 26.3-10). The site of Alexandria was chosen and was continued by his viceroy Cleomenes after his departure. The rapid growth of Alexandria, eventually becoming the largest city of the ancient world, and the monuments constructed there are a testament to its cultural domination of the region and cementing its place in human history. The Library of Alexandria, was the conception of the Greek dream to establish a universal library and it accumulated a wealth of knowledge of the ancient world. Part of the research institute known as the Mouseion, it contained the works of prominent Greek scholars and philosophers of the ancient period such as Plato, Aristotle, Homer and Herodotus were all stored within the library
2ii) Hellenistic art
]Above is a Golden clasp from a tomb in Tillya Tepe, an archeological site in the northern Afghanistan province of Jowzjan dating to around 1st century BCE to 1st century CE. Perhaps the most striking detail is the warrior’s face, positioned from a profile view, who bears a striking resemblance to Alexander with his wide eyes and straight nose (Palagia 376). The comparison is made more evident from the long locks of hair falling on his shoulder similar to Alexander on the Porus medallions (Palagia, 376). Two horns also protrude out of his helmet, a common tradition of depicting Alexander and establishing his connection with the god Ammon. From these characteristics we see how Macedonian culture, and more so Alexander’s appearance affected the Hellenistic world on what the ideal warrior looked like.
Bordering the Indian subcontinent, the Greek kingdom of Bactria facilitated cross-cultural interactions between the Greek and Indian world, with the most prominent syncretism being that of Greco-Buddhism. Depictions of the Buddha prior to this period typically relied on abstraction and symbolism, using objects such as an empty seat, the wheel, or the Bodhi tree to illustrate the journey Prince Siddhartha had undergone to achieve enlightenment (Behrendt, 47). Alexander’s campaign indirectly shaped the way in which the Buddha was represented, and influenced a humanistic style of depicting the Buddha with strong Greek elements such as clothing him in a Greek himation or a contrapposto position.
2iii) Alexander influence of Rome
As most great kingdoms do, the Hellenistic kingdoms began to decline, with the fall of Ptolemaic Egypt in 31 BC to the Romans, marking the end of the Hellenistic period. His accomplishments and larger-than-life personality meant that many prominent Roman figures greatly respected and modelled themselves after him. By using Alexander as a blueprint, they expanded their empires and extended Roman power, in the hopes of surpassing him in their own career.
Both Julius Caesar and Augustus have been recorded to have visited Alexander’s tomb in Alexandria, showing their reverence and recognition of the late leader (Suetonius, 149). A passage from Suetonius’ The Twelve Caesars recording Augustus’ visit to Alexander’s tomb states that:
… after viewing them for some time, he paid honours to the memory of that prince, by offering a golden crown, and scattering flowers upon the body… Being asked if he wished to see the tombs of the Ptolemaic also; he replied, “I wish to see a king, not dead men”.
This visceral reaction demonstrates how Alexander represented a form of imperial success and his achievements were seen as far greater than that of his contemporaries and successors.
3) Alexander’s influence in the modern era
Architecture, schools of thought and art forms in the present day can still be observed to bear elements of classical Greece. Through the Roman Empire, Greek culture was preserved, ensuring that future successors to the empire’s territories in turn began adopting similar traditions and practices. The spread of Greek ideas from Alexander’s campaign to the near east and beyond can hence be said to be a major reason why Greek culture remains so intertwined with modern western society.
The neo-classical style painting above by Charles Le Brun in 1665 is a clear example of Alexander’s direct influence on modern art history and was created roughly 2000 years after his death. Within the image, he stands upright and poised, clothed in an immaculate golden garb which descends upon an imposing white chariot and clutches a staff. Johann Joachim Winckelmann, a major contributor to the neoclassical period writes of Greek art conveying abstract ideas through two different yet complementary modes (Potts, 68). A high mode which “suggests the presence of an immaterial idea through a comparative absence of sensual refinement of form” and a beautiful mode, characterized by a “ fullness of sensuality and grace, which is more immediately attractive” (Potts, 68). Alexander’s grandeur, ambition and charisma, and his youth and vitality naturally allowed him to perfectly reflect Winckelmann’s ideal and for this reason, he is a common subject matter for many other neo-classical paintings.
The White House is the residence of the president of the United States and one of the most iconic neoclassical structures. Its northern facade features a row of columns in the ionic style, recognisable by its spiral volutes, supporting a simple, plain frieze and triangular pediment. Many other buildings exist today with similar elements of classical Greek architecture, and through them we witness a movement intending to capture a sense of simplicity, order and sophistication. Neoclassical architecture remains thus relevant in our modern society by endowing structures with a timeless beauty through recalling the idealised society of the Ancient Greeks.
Works Cited
Behrendt, Kurt A. The Art of Gandhara in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York, Metropolitan Museum Of Art, 2007.
Kinzl, Konrad H. A Companion to the Classical Greek World. Malden, Ma, Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, pp. 560–589.
Palagia, Olga. “The Impact of Alexander the Great in the Art of Central Asia.” Barkhuis EBooks, 6 May 2018, pp. 369–382, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt13wwxb1.25. Accessed 12 Nov. 2024.
Potts, Alex. Flesh and the Ideal : Winckelmann and the Origins of Art History. New Haven ; London, Yale University Press, 2000.
Arrian . Anabasis of Alexander.
Suetonius. The Twelve Caesars.
Plutarch. The Life of Alexander the Great.
Plutarch. The Parallel Lives.